Modern World History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Modern World History - Essay Example Death-feud and antagonism between the states is one of the most dangerous evils which pressures mankind through all historical periods of time. In contrast to this confrontations, the primary goal of nation-states' policies is to ensure their survival. That is, states seek to preserve their independence or sovereignty in a hostile environment. During the XX centuries, two world wars showed that the world's fate hinged on the outcome of this massive effort to meet the Axis threat of world conquest and restore the balance of power. In this hostile environment, the United Nations became a strong force which balanced confrontations and peace. The significance of the UN can be explained by the fact that previous attempts to achieve the world order had failed, but the end of the WWII demanded a strong international organization to ensure global peace. In 1945, despite the emergent differences between the United States and the Soviet Union, World War II, like all previous great-power wars, paved the way for a new world order. The League of Nation had failed to meet new social and political landscape between the Second World War. In 1943, the Four Power Declaration advanced principles for allied collaboration in the period following the end of military confrontations (Hyde, 1960). The product of the Allies' determination to create a new international organization to manage the postwar international order was conceived in this and other wartime agreements. Consistent with the expectation that the great powers would cooperate to manage world affairs, China was promised a seat on the United Nations Security Council along with F rance and the Big Three. The purpose was to guarantee that all of the dominant states would share responsibility for keeping the peace (Mcwhinney, 1984). In 1945, the UN represented a supranational level - a political body that exerted influence upon several national governments. On the other hand, the UN was used as 'a silent tool' of competition between the USA and USSR. Both countries used the United Nations not to keep the peace, but to pursue their competition with one another. As the most recent great-power war of the twentieth century, it still casts its shadow over the post-Cold War geostrategic landscape. Perhaps the most certain feature of this otherwise uncertain environment was the ascendancy of the United States and the Soviet Union as its dominant powers (Debrix, 1999). Today, the UN has lost its strategic significance in contrast to 1945, and for this very reason many political leaders and scientist suppose that: "'the role of the United Nations as a whole in economic and social affairs, including its relationship to the Bretton Woods institutions needs to be re-thought and reinvigorated" (Murithi, 2003, p.3). The end of the Cold War and the War on Terror demonstrated that the USA can survive indefinitely. Russia has made the transition over the last ten years to an independent democratic nation state. The emergence of new economic centers the Triad and European Union, NAFTA and ASEAN reduce the role and impact of the UN on the global peace and foreign relations. At the beginning of the 21st century, the global regulatory environment consists of a variety of governmental and nongovernmental agencies that enforce laws or set guidelines for conducting business and political affairs (Graham, 2003, p. 5). A change process lies at the

Rational Choice Theory Analytical Framework

Rational Choice Theory Analytical Framework Before I begin on my analytical review of the selected article, I firstly, feel that it is crucial to outline and define what an analytical framework is and what it consists of. Due to the nature of the subject we are assessing, that being social science, it is clear that researchers have to contend with many different variables from different theoretical standpoints to the vast differing ideological paradigms of this subject. If a study does not possess a proposed analytical framework within its main body of writing, it will often be criticised for being overly descriptive and lacking a precise investigation, thus meaning the academic work will lack clear focus and suffer from being vague. Secondly, analytical frameworks are many and varied, some utilise observable reality within society from institutions such as family, education and the state. These are ideal if the researcher intends on gathering evidence from that particular institution, allowing the researcher test their hypothesis of Y affects X etc. However many analytical frameworks within the social sciences are usually intertwined to key intellectual theories; these include areas such as Marxism, Rational choice and Network theory. Researchers using these types of framework allow for a focused document, which adopts a particular intellectual theory and systematically evaluates it to the chosen topic area from that standpoint. All analytical frameworks do share one particular trend whether it is assessing ideologies or the various institutions, their first initial task is to mobilise the intellectual approach through the body of literature. Furthermore this analytical framework must be chosen with careful consideration by academics, as within their chosen framework there will consist of theorists who share similar views on that particular issue. E.g. Rational choice theorists believe that we make choices based upon our personal preference, having theorists support your argument increases validity and strengthens structure of your argument, thus allowing you to raise particular questions such as is there rationality of radical Islam? In short these frameworks consist of a set of intellectual tools that guide the researcher through his/her research for example, how to collect, sort, and interpret the results found, obviously guiding is not the only application within the theoretical framework but it also has close links with the particular sub-questions asked within that theory. Firstly, an important detail to reference about the particular article, is the title of the article itself The Rationality of Radical Islam this shows a clear indication of the authors analytical standpoint The use of Rationality within the title suggests that Wiktoro Kaltenhaler are taking a Rational Choice perspective approach within the article. Before I begin on exploring how Wiktoros has employed this rational choice theory to terrorism, it is important to address what rational choice theory really is and its assumptions. Throughout much of the western hemisphere in the early part of the 21st century, we have witnessed a shift in the way we analyse human behaviour. This shift was at large partly due to the emergence of RCT which has been dominant within economics but has spread to other disciplines. This Rational choice theory consists of three independent theories at its core including social choice theory, game theory and economics. Essentially RCT is actually three things at the same time, because not only does it possess a logical structure to which many use it as a fundamental ideology to theorising. But it is both a normative empirical method of investigation into the actions and behaviours of the individual. RCTs primary underlying focus begins with the clear acknowledgment of the individual, not the interaction between several individuals. RCT would therefore advocate a minimalist state which is only used for preserving individual liberties and non invasive on the individual. Furthermore RCT is also concerned with the explanation of all social phenomenons within society whether it be conforming, or deviant acts, it views humans as rational creatures meaning there are calculated mental process that exist within our choices. Because rational choice is derived from economics it acknowledges all social exchanges are like that of economic exchanges to which an actor will choose an action rationally, based on a hierarchy of preferences, that promises to maximize benefits and minimize costs (Zey 1998 p.2) these basic premises of humans, portray that our decisions are reared towards the sole aim of profit or pleasure. This article explores the The Rationality of Radical Islam it specifically asks the question Why do Islamist radicals engage in high-cost/risk activism (Wiktorowicz 2006 p.296) and the incentives behind it. This particular analytical framework is perfect to use as, terrorism throughout the general population is widely considered highly irrational, especially in the case of Jihadist terrorism, as how can you sacrifice yourself and others for a greater good? The reasons many see terrorists and their sympathizers as irrational is due to that their beliefs are so improbable and dogmatic, (Wiktorowicz, cited 2004 in Caplan, 2006 p.97) and what factual evidence do Jihadist terrorists have for gaining a place straight into paradise where they can enjoy the company of 72 virgins? We foresee this certain approach as being nothing more than plain foolish, due to the dependency on belief. However Wiktrorowicz believes that we cannot judge an action such as this, as irrational simply because we dont agree with it, and if the individual is optimizing their top preference then they are acting rationally (Wiktorowicz 2006 p.300). The second major point tackled by these two authors, is the assessment on the various incentives terrorist organisations offer, as all groups proffers its ideology as an efficient path to salvation, which serves as a heuristic device for in-doctrinal actors to weigh the costs benefits of certain behaviour (Wiktorowicz 2006 p.301). In other words most organisations dont offer material or worldly goods which by western culture does not reflect economic or personal benefit for the individual, but it shows that spiritual good are more important to some. But there is evidence that those who joined Algerias armed Islamic groups chose to do so to benefit economically from insurgency, such as smuggling (wiktorowicz 2006 p.302). Referring back to the previous point, a case study brought up in the article was on the Al-Muhajiroun which proved to be a popular group throughout the UK, but after the attacks on 9/11 the British state condemned the group for expressing radical views. However during its time this case study provides a perfect example of payoffs, as the Al-Muhajiron only offered spiritual payoffs for such a high risk activity, many in this group viewed activism and even risk itself as means to achieve salvation and entrance to paradise (Wiktorowicz 2006 p.302). These points articulate that RCT doesnt provide an explanation of preference formation, but explains a strategy of choices under a set of ordered preferences (Wiktorowicz 2006 p.302) so RCT is not concerned with why individuals prioritise terrorism to the top of the list but it just wants to understand why we rationally choose to do something highly illegal and dangerous. Lastly Bruce Hoffman in regards to rationality of terrorism defines terrorism as the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change. All terrorist acts involve violence or the threat of violence. (Hoffman 1998) his use of literature such as deliberate creation backs up the arguments of Wiktorowicz that terrorists pre-plan and prepare every step of terrorism, this could be in terms of signing up for Jihadist attacks or the preparation of bombs, the terrorists know what they are doing and gladly do it pursuing their own self interest at any cost. Delving into the theoretical underpinnings of the article, I firstly, came across within the literature a reference to Mother Teresa in which she advocated that religion was self-sacrificial and wasnt motivated by external rewards (Wiktorowicz 2006 p.302). This has one of two benefits; one the use of a similar theorist strengthens Wiktorowiczs argument, as the author is acknowledging a rationale in the idea that material goods are not the only driving force of an individual. And secondly, within this article by Kwilecki Wilson we can see a clear running theme for RCT as in the opening abstract they state that this paper applies rational choice to the religion of Mother Teresa (Kwilecki 2000 p.205). Lastly, upon viewing Wiktorowiczs endnote system, we can see the material they used to reference and guide their analysis is heavily interlinked to the analytical framework of RCT, such as the economic approach to human behaviour an introduction to rational choice by Jon Estler clearly shows that the theoretical underpinnings all point to a RCT perspective approach and has been applied to the topic of terrorism. With RCT being a major ideological contender within the social science world over the past six decades, there is now a huge library of literature attacking and defending RCT and is currently still growing. To begin I want to discuss the advantages of this particular approach in general. Firstly, RCT has survived this long due to its genuine fundamental strengths e.g. rationality accords with common sense in certain simple settings. For example, consider a choice between $5 and $10, no strings attached. (Herrnstein 1990 p.357) On this basis of behaviour, we would always choose the larger sum of money no matter what, so in a sense arguing against RCT is like arguing against the principal of indisputable truth and against common sense in general. Second, the sheer power of this theory is an undisputable strength of its own, as it has manifested itself into all disciplines that examine behaviour from political philosophy to the behaviourism in psychology; it is hard to critique such a coherent framework. So its generality in other words allows assumptions to be placed into a wide variety of topic areas, without them being splintered into a mix of complicated sub-theories. This common deductive base detaches them from other main theories as by reducing the area of disagreement it can work much more efficiently. Before 9/11 investigations into terrorist cells were minimal, so too were activities regarding anti-terrorism. However after the attacks on the World Trade Centre in New York, we witnessed a major influx with both participants in high risk activities as well as counter terrorism agencies investigating these radical motives. One thing is clear in terms of terrorism is the fact that RCT has opened up radical movements who were previously described as unflappable, ideological zealots trapped by rigid adherence to dogma, are now regarded as strategic thinkers.'(Wiktorowicz 2005 p.13) This approach breathes life into the study of terrorists actions and how to counteract such activities e.g. Deterrence, there is little doubt that old-fashioned deterrence reduces the amount of terrorism, and in theory increasing the risk and severity of being caught should also continue to drop the amount of people who adopt radical beliefs. Secondly moving on to the general criticisms of this theory, which has seen a wide range of claims made against it, for instance RCT cannot explain the existence of various social phenomenons such as trust, reciprocity and especially charity, as in such organisations the masses are the ones benefitting from the individuals actions, and the individual isnt rationally choosing to maximise their personal benefits. Furthermore in terms of the individuals choices, it is safe to say that individuals do not possess all knowledge and information on everything anything, so essentially humans rely on heuristics to guide our thought processes which essentially intelligent guesswork. This limitation can also go further into the fact that in society today and even in the past, peoples choices are constrained by the many social institutions of society the modal individual will find his or her actions checked from birth to death by familial and school rules; laws and ordinances'(Freidman 1991 p.208) . Continuing on from the last point its seems clear that its not just institutions structures holding individuals back, but the pressures of so called acceptable behaviour as these social norms are essentially a barrier to the pursuit of self-interest. Lastly on the general criticisms towards RCT Id like to discuss a point raised in the book by Paul Anard who wrote if rationality is about consistency, including logical consistency, then human agents cannot be considered rational in a full sense. (Anard 2002 p.22) This quote articulates a very interesting standpoint against the fundamental underpinnings of this theory as if RCT states we are so rational in mind body the n why do we have inconsistencies of thoughts, and why are these behaviours such a common occurrence within our society. A weakness RCT has in relation to terrorism is that RCT generally operates in a post-hoc manner where researchers usually examine past precedents to rationalise and predict similar event of the future, (Lindauer 2012 p.8) but in the area of terrorism this is not a good idea, as one terrorism is irrational that mathematically people cannot always predict events and secondly, if a mistake was to be made the consequences could be devastating and traumatic as peoples lives are at risk. As discussed previously within this essay, RCT has a high number of loyal followers and a wide literature on all subjects, so as RCT is focused upon behaviour, it has made important inroads to other topic areas not just the study of terrorism. One key area RCT is dominant in, is the low turnout rate within elections. RCT states that turnout is, for many people most of the time, a low-cost, low-benefit action. (Aldrich 1993 p.261) so will always suffer. This theory has been the backbone of reform and incentives to revert voter apathy and re-engage people back into politics. For example it is important for a political campaign to outline what benefits it will have on the individual causing it to be a high benefit action. Secondly RCT is prominent within criminology and the rationality of criminals, this topic is similar to terrorism in respect that, RCT argues the decision to commit an offense is negatively related to the perceived costs of crime and positively related to the perceived rewards of crime (Nagin 1993 p.479) thus meaning there is a rational mental process taking place within the individual before a crime is committed. Like petty crime is often committed at night or during quiet hours as criminals mentally calculate the benefits, such as they will be less likely to be disturbed or be seen committing a crime. RCT creates a wonderful overview to the behaviours of crime and the individuals within it. In conclusion the analytical framework utilised within the article of terrorism allows for a detailed and unique perspective on why individuals choose to commit terrorist actions. The authors use of case studies back up the RCT theory, adding not only depth but lying out clear empirical evidence of Rational choice for the reader to ponder. Because RCT is a more coherent group defined by a very clear methodology (Burnham 2008 p.26) allows the theory to be implemented into other areas. To give an example, the rationality within committing crime can be directly compared and contrasted towards terrorism interlinking the mental process that go with it, thus in turn creating a powerful theory of analysis which has much literature and backing. Lastly, concluding with my thoughts on using an analytical framework within academic research. I feel using a framework is crucial in order obtain an essay that consists of structural rigour. Studying a topic area can be a daunting task especially a v ery broad topic like many in the social sciences, but using an analytical framework can help break down the topic of your choice helping you research, gather present your findings into a coherent argument. Furthermore without a set framework the article will attempt to answer more questions than it can answer making it a weak descriptive academic piece of work.

Advertising and Childhood Obesity Essay -- Health, Diseases

According to the Centers for Disease Control (2007), the rate of obesity among children between the ages of six and eleven in the United States has increased about five times compared with the rate in the 1970s (Yu 87). There are over nine million children in the U.S. today between the ages of six and eleven who are considered to be obese (Yu 87). The real question is what is the exact cause of obesity in children today? Some people believe there is a link between the advertising children see on TV and obesity. There are many factors that lead up to childhood obesity. Children and adolescents, who are obese, are usually caused by several things. Both exposure to television food advertising and obesity are highly linked with the time children spend in front of the television, the parenting style and exposure to other kids of marking (Veerman). Here are some of the factors that may contribute to childhood obesity: lack of physical activity, unhealthy eating habits, genetics, social factors, media, and the environment. Advertising does not contribute to childhood obesity alone and solely targeting advertising as being the only factor will not make a huge impact on this ever-growing problem ("Childhood Obesity"). Some people argue that advertising is the only link but I will explain to you the reasons that I believe work together to cause the obesity epidemic. The first cause that I will be talking about is advertising. The television market spends 10 billion on advertising in the hopes of influencing children (Zimmerman 336). The most common product advertised on television is food ads. During Saturday morning cartoons children will be exposed to one commercial pertaining to food around every five minutes (Zimme... ...es and lead by example the kinds of food you buy for them. If they see you buying the healthy, nutritious foods than they will most likely buy them as well. If parents are more responsible, when it comes to teaching their children how to live a healthier lifestyle, we will probably see more of a decrease in childhood obesity. As I have explained there are many factors that contribute to childhood obesity. I don't think they the issue can be linked to just the advertising to children alone. I have told you about some of the other factors that combined together contribute to childhood obesity. They include but are not limited to advertising, convenience of fast food, genetics, the environment and one of the biggest contributions, parental influence. If you find your child heading in the direction of childhood obesity consider all the things I talked about.

I Prefer to Live in Big Cities Than in Small Towns

I Prefer to Live in Big Cities than in Small-towns In English, there is a well-known fairy story about a poor country boy, Dick Whittington, who goes to London because he believes that the streets of that city are â€Å"paved with gold†. The story is a tale of â€Å"from rags to riches†. Dick eventually becomes the Lord Mayor of London. Like the hero of that story, I love to take adventure in the cities. I grew up in a small town and then moved to a big city, so I have experienced the good and bad sides of both. I never thought that I would like living in a big city, but I was wrong.Cities contain a great assortment of people. Whenever I walk around a shopping precinct at midday on a weekend, I am fascinated by all the different types of people hurrying around the shops. Sometimes, I just sit on a public bench and simply watch the variegated streams of shoppers. Today, in the age of globe-trotting transport and communications, city life is more mixed than it has ever be en. Capital cities are not cosmopolitan, and eager to attract foreign trade currency. There is a contemporary English joke which tells that â€Å"you can never find an Englishman in London†.The United States is made up of people of different races, religions, abilities, and interests. However, you seldom find such a variety of people in a smaller town. I think that living in an area where everyone was just like me would quickly become boring. Whether rightly or wrongly, I love the excitement of big cities. Small towns have a slow pace. Large cities mean you have to adapt to a variety of situations, like finding a new route to work or trying a new restaurant. I enjoy that challenge very much. Another pan of the excitement of city living is the variety of cultural activities available.There is a wide assortment of theatre, music and dance performances available in big cities. These things are rare in small ones. Governments and local authorities usually build public amenities i n the big cities. Money is invested in transport, libraries, parks and museums. Often, countries will compete with each other for the best â€Å"show-case† building. Malaysia has built a skyscraper that is taller than is anything in New York. In large countries, region will compete against region: New York against Chicago, Shanghai against Hong Kong and Beijing. All of this is good for the citizen.The magic of the Dick Whittington story is rekindled in me when I enter a library in a magnificent building. If a person is at university studying art or music, a large city usually offers galleries and public performances. Even when I was a teenager, I appreciated the worth of living in a city because two or three times a year there was a rock concert by one of my favorite bands. There is one thing I want to talk is small-towns and big cities both have some problems in terms of transportation. In a small town, you have to own a car to ensure a comfortable living.You can't get aroun d without one because there isn't any kind of public transportation. Big cities generally have heavy traffic and expensive parking, but there you have a choice of taking public transportation. It's not free, but it's often cheaper than driving when you consider gas and time. Especially if you don't have a car, you're better off in the city. And of course, security is a concern, and that's one area where small towns are superior to big cities. Still, I would rather be a bit more cautious and live in a large city than to feel secure but bored.

The lost princess

The room was damp and cold, cold with marks of water dripping down the unhomely painted walls. The paving slabs were freezing and impersonally decorated, there were no carpets covering them. There was no life nor humanity in the semidark chamber. There was no door nor curtains on the tiny window that looked on to the north, making the room even more dark and mysterious. It was unhomely and unlived. No one entered the freezing cube that composed the enchanted, shadowed lodging. It was empty of life even though the passage outside was full of it. The place was avoided by everyone. It had such a sense of emptiness†¦ When the threshold was crossed, a wave of uncontrollable panic entered into the intruders heart. The floor boards under the feet felt as cold as ice, sharpening the freezing terror. The walls were clammy, you couldn't lean on them†¦ It smelt damp. The air entered your throat and cut it like a knife. It felt dry and it was hard to swallow. The fear crept into your heart slowly but unceasingly and made its self bigger and stronger, petrifying you completely. It was like a serpents venom, spreading through your blood paralysing you vein by vein, artery by artery†¦ She entered the poisoned room. No sound was to be heard except for the faint drip, drip of water on the floor. For the first time in the room's history, it all failed. She laughed. It was a delightful laugh. The type you hear when a child is hugged by her mother. She frowned as the echo slowly returned to her. She felt a sudden warmth around her. She noticed that the floor was now covered in thick Indian carpets. It all felt cosy and warm under her small feet. She moved with the glamour and gentleness of a deer, so delicate and fragile†¦ There was a lovely scent all over the room. It was like someone had opened a bottle of the loveliest perfume and let it mix with the air. It smelt of the finest vanilla. Looking out of the window you could see the source of that magnificent smell. There was a small garden full of small vanilla plants, starting to bloom in the night's cold air. The room was now painted in the finest violet. The walls had stopped the dripping and sweating, and instead of the faint drip, drip you could hear a small bird tweeting in a tiny cage at the far end of the room. Soon she felt sleepy and noticed a current of warm air picking her up and carrying her to a cosy four-poster. There she slept for hours and hours†¦ As she slept the walls started to drip again soaking the silk carpets and returning the room to its old state to such an extent, that after a few minutes only the four-poster stood in the middle of the icy room. There was no sign of the tiny princess. Instead there was a little deer skipping and hopping under the moonlight in a garden full of tiny vanilla flowers.